Five Facts about Aztec people

                                                        

                  Five Facts about the Aztecs                           

                                   

1. The Aztecs were the last people to dominate Mexico before the arrival of the Spanish.

2. They waged continual war to capture prisoners to sacrifice to the gods and to demand tribute from neighboring states.

3. Soldiers were rewarded with elaborate costumes to show how many prisoners they had captured.

4. The last Aztec ruler was Montezuma. He believed a rumor that the Spanish commander Herman Cortes was the god Quetzalcoatl in human form and invited him to his palace.

5. Bad mistake-the Spaniards took Montezuma prisoner and conquered his empire.

Reddy's

                                             History of Reddy's

Reddy community found all over Andhra Pradesh and the neighboring states. In Andhra Pradesh, the Reddy’s are considered traditional village headmen. The duties of headmen included the collection of tax, guarding the village and basically representing the village in dealing with outsiders or even the government. Physically they are very well built and strong, 'solid farmer stock' according to some english observers, and they retain a residual military -aristocratic tradition. Several members of the community are very wealthy landowners and businessmen, but most are small farmers.

According to manu, the four varna grouping (loosely called caste) brahman-kshatriya-vaisya-sudra are all aryan. They differ in their duties, rights etc but are ALL 100% arya according to manu. (the rest of you fallen aryans dont figure ;-)

Roots of the Reddis:

The Reddis do not constitute a ethnic group, really. There are several strands which go to make the Reddis of today. They appear to be basically Deccan plateau inhabitants, which includes Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra. Another point to note, in several areas the term Reddi was treated as a sort of title for anyone who was appointed as village headman. Usually this meant a soldier, who got along fine with the other headmen. Gradually the descendants would be absorbed into the larger Reddi grouping.

The earliest reference we have to anyone resembling the Reddis are the Rathis and the Maha rathis before 200 BC. These kings ruled over small principalities in the Deccan plateau area of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra before the Satavahanas and mauryas. They have left coins in northern Andhra Pradesh, also in Kurnool district, and near Pune etc. The coins are found in the levels between the megalithic and satavahana levels in excavations. The term Rathi might refer to "one riding a chariot" (Ratha=horse drawn chariot in prakrit and old sanskrit). A grander Rathi king might be called Maha rathi. Actually this "Rathi" can be traced directly to the people riding horse drawn chariot during the time of the rgveda and avesta ( 'rathaesthar' in avestan), but I dont have any specific evidence linking today's Reddis so far back in time. Could be some connection, of course.

The Satavahanas intermarried with the maharathis. Sri Satakarni married Naaganika Devi, daughter of a maha rathi.(221 -198 BC). The Satavahanas ruled over Malwa and parts of Gujarat as well and clashed with the Sakas -Pahlavas (scythians and pallavas) but eventually intermarried with them. The Deccan was covered with thick forests, only scattered areas were under agriculture, and that too likely slash and burn primitive agriculture. Castes and communities were still forming. Even feudalism hadn't really developed in those days, the tribal structure was slowly dissolving with the influence of Buddhism. So one shouldn't take the caste thing too seriously.

The Reddis in the Telangana region were active in the kakatiya kingdom. (AD 1000-1223). They were knights and barons and subordinate kings who ruled regions, in turn they had to pay taxes/ a part of the plunder and organise troops for campaigns. Several large dams and lakes and large sized wells were constructed by the reddis of the time, and they still serve their purpose as planned a thousand years ago.

After the kakatiya kingdom broke up, many Reddis migrated to coastal Andhra---Addanki and Kondaveedu, and later Rajahmundry on the Godavari and founded their own independent kingdoms which flourished between 1325-1448 AD. Komati Prolaya Vemareddy , son of Komati Prola reddy founded this kingdom . There are foolish elaborate explanations of why the name Komdi or Komati was their surname (apart from silly fake legends, there is an attempt to discover some "jain goddess".)

One actual very simple reason, which sems to have escaped scholars, is Komdi or Komda is a name of a tribal deity Kumara, Kumra, Kartikeya, Mayura, Mora, Velan, Murugan--- the warlike son of Siva. A merchant community called komati also is derived from this ancient name, while they have very little to do with reddis. There is one more derivation --from Kumuda , Khumdi, Cimmerian which also rings true.

While the area and extent may not have been large, these Reddi Raja states are historically significant because Telugu literature got a strong impetus. Vemareddi has left many inscriptions, the well preserved ones detailing the repairs he made to temples like Srisailam and Ahobilam and Drakshaaram.

During the Vijayanagar empire (roughly 1300 -1600 AD) too they were prominent especially in Rayalseema, where they became independent zamindars or landholders and were constantly engaged in clan feuding. (the feuds continue to this day). The Rayalseema reddis are closely related to the landlord Gowdas of karnataka and the Reddiars of Tamilnad. There are also a few Reddi principalities which managed to survive independently between large warring states, in Mahabubnagar district (Old Palamoor) like Gadwal and Wanaparthi. The Reddis around these areas have a tradition they are descended from ancient Chalukya ancestors.

Reddis are also prominent in Nellore and Chittoor district also. ---(some claim they are descended from pallava ancestors, but proof is lacking). In these areas, during British times they often visited closeby Madras, took to modern education in the Madras presidency, and also joined the military.

In the Golkonda region, all during the Turkish rule and recent Nizams too , the Reddis continued to be headmen, village policemen and tax collectors and farmers. The larger Reddi landlords were styled as Desais and Doras.

( and continued their bitter nine-hundred year old rivalry with the Velamas, another feudal clan. This rivalry also exists to this day in rural areas). Several Reddis were noblemen during the Nizams time, too.

The Reddis of all the various regions mentioned have different traditions and notions and do not seem to have very much in common with each other : they have more in common with other communities of their regions. Given the background one would expect they are all feudal reactionary upper caste bigots : not so, they were prominent in reform activities too. In medieval times they were enthusisatic backers of Saivite and Vaishnavite reform movements too. In south coastal areas --guntur, for instance--- reddis intermarried with Brahmins and others under the influence of saivite reformers. In Telangana area they used to wed girls from other communities but the offspring wouldn't bear the clan name. In north Andhra Pradesh, during the communist-led Telangana people's movement against the feudal Nizam state in the 1940's, there were many comrades from a Reddy background. Eventually, a large number of Reddis went into business especially construction and films and have made a name for themselves in the field. --Nagi reddi , etc. Don't forget Kalabandhu Subbiramireddy. In recent times they are prominent in the world pharmaceutical industry too, like Dr Anji Reddy. Dr. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy was a President of India. (etc etc, many others too long to list. Generally they are embarrassed if listed.)

While the older generation of Reddis had a feeling for the "land" and flair for farming, and leadership of the villages, nowadays there is a rapid change in rural areas: the younger Reddis are losing interest in rural life (not just farming, but the ramifications like district politics) and migrating to the cities, becoming urban professionals and businessmen. Fairly large numbers have migrated to the USA. They are prominent in Telugu organisations in the USA. Australia and NZ also seem to be attracting Reddis.

Other Angle

Reddy lso transliterated as Raddi, Reddi) is the name of a socio-economically and politically dominant caste found in South India. Caste endogamy is still observed. They formed part of the ruling class of ancient Telugu society. There was Reddy dynastykings in the 14th century. The community still enjoys impregnable social status and political power.

Reddys regard Andhra Pradesh as their homeland and telugu is their mother tongue,however they form an intricate part of the of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Maharastra society as well and are proficient in those languages too. Many Reddys migrated to tamilnadu centuries ago and have formed a distinct community that is completely incorporated nto andhra culture and doesn't necessarily feel a closer affinity to their Andhra cousins. However, marriage between Andhra and gulf people is still common. Reddiar is a Tamilianised version of Reddy. Sri RAMA (Sri Vishnu), Sri Krishna and Lord Shiva are by far their most popular deities.

Origin

Regarding the origin of the term and specific caste there are various theories:

The oral traditions of Reddys state (first Reddy is a charioteer who impressed the king with his courage in the battle and own some lands) that Reddy is a corruption of Ratti meaning chariot or charioteer and their ancestors were charioteers for the Rashtrakutas. The Reddys may have been early practitioners of agriculture and farming. "Reddy" is derived from the Telugu word "redu" which means farm land. Some linguists surmised the word Reddy originated from the medieval term Rattodu, which is derived from Rashtrakutudu. The Rashtrakutas employed wealthy local farmers to head villages and collect taxes in the empire and conferred the title of Reddy. The usage of the word Reddy specifically was first seen in the inscriptions made during the Renati Chola times (7th century CE) ).

Another theory relates the Reddies to the Rathis, who ruled over small principalities in the Deccan plateau before 200 BCE and before the Satavahanas and Mauryas. The Rathis left coins in northern Andhra Pradesh, Kurnool district, and near Pune. The coins are found in the levels between the megalithic and Satavahana levels in excavations.

Early history

The Rashtrakutas were initially the elite troops of the Chalukyas. They founded an empire after the Badami Chalukyas faded from the scene. After the Rashtrakutas declined we find inscriptions of the succeeding Kalyani Chalukya]]s in Andhra Pradesh, in which Reddys were mentioned (900 CE). They were soldiers appointed as Chieftans of villages in Medak district by the Kalyani Chalukyas. Some of the names mentioned are Mini Raddi and Kati Raddi. The inscription mentions the name of the appointee, the authorized appointer, the important personages of the areas and surrounding villages. Ratnagiri fort was built by potu sri chenna reddy and was captured by Muslim rulers in maharastra . Ratnagiri reddy's migrated to Adilabad and karim nagar in early 19th century.

Kakatiya period

After the decline of Kalyani Chalukyas at the beginning of the 12th century, Prola II (1110-1158 CE) declared himself independent from the Chalukyas and established the Kakatiya dynasty. Prola used the title of Reddi[3] in his inscriptions. Early inscriptions by the Kakatiyas indicated that they arose from the Chaturavarna. Rudramma Devi's daughter married a Chalukya prince or a Kota prince, her grandson was the famous Pratapa Rudra. Only since his birth did the Kakatiyas claim to be Warriors. By the early 14th century the Kakatiya Empire was under threat from the Delhi Sultanate. Kakatiya emperor Pratap Rudra agreed to pay tribute, but then withheld the payment and this provoked the final and fatal attack in 1323 CE. King Pratap Rudra was captured and committed suicide by drowning himself in the river Narmada while being taken to Delhi. The Telugu country was plundered and subjugated. This marked a watershed in the history of the Reddys. The Reddys who had been predominant in the Telangana region migrated to the coastal areas after the fall of Warangal. The brother of Pratap Rudra escaped to the Orissa region and founded a kingdom in Bastar. The royal family of Bastar claims descent from Kakatiya Annam Deo.

Reddy dynasty

The Reddy dynasty ruled some parts of the coastal Andhra Pradesh about 60years. Andhrula Sanghika Charitra, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy, (in Telugu)</ref> Reddys became independent after the martyrdom of Musunuri Kapaya Nayak[5] at the hands of Recherla Velama kings in the battle of Bhuvanagiri (Bhongir in Telangana region). Komati Prolaya Vema Reddy was the first king of the Reddy dynasty.[6] The capital of the kingdom was Addanki which was moved to Kondavidu and subsequently to Rajahmundry. His reign was characterized by restoration of peace, patronage of arts and literature, and all round development. Errana, the translator of Ramayana, lived during this period.

The dynasty declined due to the wars with Recherla chiefs and Gajapathis of Orissa. In later years, Reddys had to be content as vassals of Golconda Muslim kings.

Golkonda period

The Reddys continued to be Chieftains, village policemen, tax collectors and farmers in the Telangana region, throughout Turkish rule and under the Nizams. The Reddy landlords styled themselves as Desais , Doras and Patel. Several Reddys were noblemen in the court of Nizam Nawabs. During the communist led Telangana people's movement against the Nizam state in the 1940s many Reddys actively took part in the struggle.

British period

Reddys in general and especially the ones in Nellore and Chittoor districts took to modern forms of agriculture early, helping them to increase their wealth and also were one of the first communities to place importance in education because of their proximity to Madras (Modern Chennai).

Recent history

Their recent history is quite distinguised as you can tell from the list of prominent members. Their political preeminence is being challenged from other castes but are still an influential component of Telugu society and politics. In addition to their traditional farming occupation large sections have taken up various professions including industry, business, real estate, construction and films.

Role in politics

Influenced by their long tradition of being village headman and Zamindhars, Reddys continue to be very active in local, state and national politics. Particularly in the state of Andhra Pradesh, a number of former chief ministers belong to this community. The list of chief ministers include [sambireddy [Bezawada Gopala Reddy]],Neelam Sanjiv Reddy, Kasu Brahma Ananda Reddy, Marri Chenna Reddy , Kotla Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy and Y.S.RajaSekhar Reddy who collectively ruled the state for more than 30 years after the formation of state in 1956. Neelam Sanjiv Reddy served as a President of India

Some important years of Chinese history

Some important years of Chinese history(AD)

1.610 AD: - The Grand Canal, built to carry trade between north and south china, is completed; it runs for 1770 km (1100miles)

2. 1000AD: - Science and technology flourished under the Song dynasty.

3. 1275 AD: - Venetian explorer Marco polo arrives at the court of Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor of china

4. 1368 AD: -  A Peasant ruler, Zhu Yuangzhang, over throws the Mongols and becomes the first Ming emperor.

5. 1644 AD: - Manchu (Mongolian) warriors seize Bejing and establish the Qing dynasty (Until 1911).  

KAMMA

KAMMA
The most influential community in Andhra Pradesh today is the Kamma, or Chowdhary community.
In a numerical ranking (by population size) they would probably be fifth or sixth, but they are concentrated in some areas like Krishna, Guntur, Southern parts of the Godavari river delta, Nizamabad in Telangana and some places of Rayalseema like Anantapur.

Roots of the Kammas:

1. The early "kamma" section could be immigrants into these parts later than 100 AD, probably part of the great kaambhoja migrations from central asia along with the Saka Pallavas who clashed and ultimately merged with the Satavahanas. It has to be remembered the caste thing was not rigid then: Buddhism was prevalent. The pallavas
settled in Guntur-Nellore areas. (for further details, read the inscriptions of  the early pallavas).

2. The next stream seem to be from Northern Uttar Pradesh/Haryana area, during the period when large parts of Andhra pradesh region were coming under the plough for the first time. Forests used to be cleared, a frontier outpost was built round a small temple, the "agraharam" village was given by the kings to brahmins imported from far away lands.  Their job was to popularise agriculture in the area to the hunting and food gathering peoples.
In several places the so called backward tribals picked up education very rapidly and intermarried too. According to one theory Kammas are descended from the foreign immigrant aryas (i.e. brahmins and the warriors and the other people who had a patriarchal system) and the local independent minded tribal warrior girls following a 'matriarchal' social pattern, where women are important and not the men : the head of household is the woman's
brother, while the husband is still considered to be of another clan. This is possible, for the later Kammas maintained a military connection and the girls are still of independent mind.

3. Another theory is that kammas are one of the buddhist era trading communities who regularly travelled between krishna delta and Uttarapatha via Gujarat Rajasthan ( Malwa) and Haryana. There were several well-established and powerful trade guilds and castes.

All these might be correct, but the evidence is indirect and we have little concrete direct proof. So one can't take these as hard proven facts.

The term Chowdhary refers to tax collection of a fourth of the farm produce. While it was said to be introduced during maratha times, it seems to have become fairly popular all over India, and we find "choudharies" in haryana and bengal as well. But it was a revenue post, and sometimes the head of the local merchants' and traders'
guild is also called chowdhary. Possibly the kammas took up trade and business, as explained.

In coastal Andhra area, with the English development of the river Canal system, the river delta Kammas turned to capitalist farming (compared to small scale peasant farming earlier) and other businesses. They run huge sugar, chemical and cement factories, the film industry, cultural institutions, newspapers, etc.

In the Krishna district kammas were active in the struggle against feudal (kamma) landlords and several joined the Communist party. The kammas fully backed the struggle against the feudal Nizam and several gave their lives, too. (The top leadership and backers of the Telugu Desam party are Kamma, claims to the contrary not to be believed. It is true the TDP today is bascially a party of the "backward castes" ie small farmers, though.).

AMAZING FACTS

                AMAZING FACTS

When Ying zing became king of Qin, China was divided into seven warring states. He conqured them all and declared himself Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor)

of china in 221BC

He determined to make China a single state

He orders the construction of an earth barrier stretching more than 1,600 km (1,000 miles) to keep

out invasions – the beginning of great wall of china.

He feared only one thing death. He travelled the islands of Japan in search of a magic elixir to give him eternal life.

It took 7,00,000 men and 36 years to build his massive tomb. It is 60m (164 ft) and is said to  contain a replica of his capital city.

Second French revolution

                            Second French revolution

Per the Charter of 1814, Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of a constitutional monarchy. Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother, the Count of Artois, ascended to the throne in 1824, as Charles X. Supported by the ultra-royalists, Charles X was an extremely unpopular reactionary monarch whose aspirations were far more grand than those of his deceased brother. He had no desire to rule as a constitutional monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch and weaken that of the lower house.

In 1830, Charles, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisors Jules, prince de Polignac, issued the Four Ordinances of St. Cloud. These ordinances abolished freedom of the press, reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked an immediate reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830. Charles was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for England. As a result, Louis Philippe, of the Orleanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830, and his rule became known as the July Monarchy.

Nicknamed the "Bourgeois Monarch", Louis Philippe sat at the head of a moderately liberal state controlled mainly by educated elites. Supported by the Orleanists, he was opposed on his right by the Legitimists (former ultra-royalists) and on his left by the Republicans and Socialists. Under his rule, privileged groups were favored, and elitism resulted in the disenfranchisement of much of the middle and working classes. By 1848 only about one per cent of the population held the franchise. Even though France had a free press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote, which alienated the petty bourgeoisie from the high bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orleanist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against him, disappointed by Louis Philippe's opposition to parliamentarism.

Alexis de Tocqueville had observed, "We are sleeping together in a volcano . . . A wind of revolution blows, the storm is on the horizon." Lacking the property qualifications to vote, the lower classes were about to erupt in revolt.

Events of February:-

On February 26, 1848, the liberal opposition came together to organize a provisional government, called the Second Republic. Two major goals of this republic were Universal suffrage and Unemployment relief. Universal male suffrage was enacted on March 2, giving France nine million new voters. As in all other European nations, women did not have the right to vote. However, during this time a proliferation of political clubs emerged, including women's organizations. Relief for the unemployed was achieved through National Workshops, which guaranteed French citizens' "right to work". By May, 1848 the National Workshops were employing 100,000 workers and paying out daily wages of 70,000 livres.[5] In 1848, 479 newspapers were founded. There was also a 54% decline in the number of businesses in Paris, as most of the wealthy had left; there was a corresponding decline in the luxury trade and credit was unobtainable.

The End of the Revolution in France

Politics continued to tilt to the right, and the era of revolution in France came to an end. Louis Napoleon's family name of Napoleon rallied support, and after sweeping the elections he returned to the old order, purging republicans and returning the "vile multitude" (Thiers) to its former place. By the December 2, 1851 coup, he dissolved the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so, and became the sole ruler of France. Cells of resistance surfaced, but were put down, and the Second Republic was over. He reestablished universal suffrage, feared by the Republicans at the time who correctly expected the country-side to vote against the Republic, Louis Napoleon took the title Emperor Napoleon III, and the Second Empire began.

French revolution of 1789

                     French revolution of 1789

Movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799, reaching its first climax in 1789, and ended the ancien régime.

Causes included the loss of peasant support for the feudal system, broad acceptance of the reformist writings of the philosophes, an expanding bourgeoisie that was excluded from political power, a fiscal crisis worsened by participation in the American Revolution, and crop failures in 1788. The efforts of the regime in 1787 to increase taxes levied on the privileged classes initiated a crisis. In response, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General, made up of clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate (commoners), in 1789. Trying to pass reforms, it swore the Tennis Court Oath not to disperse until France had a new constitution. The king grudgingly concurred in the formation of the National Assembly, but rumours of an “aristocratic conspiracy” led to the Great Fear of July 1789, and Parisians seized the Bastille on July 14. The assembly drafted a new constitution that introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaiming liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Constitution of 1791 also established a short-lived constitutional monarchy. The assembly nationalized church lands to pay off the public debt and reorganized the church (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). The king tried to flee the country but was apprehended at Varennes. France, newly nationalistic, declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792, beginning the French Revolutionary Wars. Revolutionaries imprisoned the royal family and massacred nobles and clergy at the Tuileries in 1792. A new assembly, the National Convention—divided between Girondins and the extremist Montagnards—abolished the monarchy and established the First Republic in September 1792. Louis XVI was judged by the National Convention and executed for treason on Jan. 21, 1793. The Montagnards seized power and adopted radical economic and social policies that provoked violent reactions, including the Wars of the Vendée and citizen revolts. Opposition was broken by the Reign of Terror. Military victories in 1794 brought a change in the public mood, and Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown in the Convention on 9 Thermidor, year II (in 1794 in the French republican calendar), and executed the next day (see Thermidorian Reaction). Royalists tried to seize power in Paris but were crushed by Napoleon on 13 Vendémaire, year IV (in 1795). A new constitution placed executive power in a Directory of five members. The war and schisms in the Directory led to disputes that were settled by coups d'état, chiefly those of 18 Fructidor, Year V (in 1797), and 18–19 Brumaire, Year VIII (in 1799), in which Napoleon abolished the Directory and declared himself leader of France